Modern Silk Road and China’s BRI

Silk Road Journey and China’s BRI

Source: The Hindu
GS II: International relation 

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Last Updated: July 2026

Overview

The Silk Road was an ancient network of land and maritime trade routes connecting China and other parts of Asia with Europe, Africa and the Mediterranean region. It facilitated not only the exchange of goods such as silk, spices and precious metals but also the movement of religions, technologies, languages and cultural traditions.

In the modern era, the expression “New Silk Road” is commonly associated with China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and the growing network of railways, highways, ports, pipelines and digital infrastructure connecting Asia with Europe and Africa.

The 2017 freight-train journey between Britain and China represented an important milestone in this emerging Eurasian connectivity network. Since then, China–Europe freight rail services have expanded substantially and become an important component of global supply chains.

Why Was the Silk Road Journey in the News?

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• In April 2017, the first freight train from Britain to China began its journey from the London Gateway container port to Yiwu, an important trading centre in eastern China.
• The train carried British products such as whisky, soft drinks, pharmaceuticals and baby products.

  

• It consisted of 32 containers, was approximately 600 metres long and covered nearly 12,000 kilometres in around 18 days.
• The journey was presented as a modern revival of the historic Silk Road and as evidence of expanding trade connectivity between China and Europe.
• It followed the arrival of the first direct freight train from Yiwu in China to London in January 2017.
• That train transported consumer goods, clothing, textiles and household products from China to the United Kingdom.

 

Why Is the Topic Relevant Today?

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The 2017 journey was not an isolated event. It formed part of a rapidly expanding China–Europe rail network that has since developed into a major component of the Belt and Road Initiative.

In 2024, China–Europe freight services completed approximately 19,000 train journeys and transported more than two million twenty-foot equivalent units of cargo. By early 2025, the network connected more than 220 European cities with numerous cities in China and other parts of Asia.

The routes have also diversified because of geopolitical disruptions, sanctions, supply-chain vulnerabilities and the Russia–Ukraine conflict. Greater attention is now being given to routes through Central Asia, the Caspian Sea and Türkiye that reduce dependence on the traditional northern corridor through Russia.

What Was the Route of the London–Yiwu Train?

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The train travelled through:

• The United Kingdom
• The Channel Tunnel
• France
• Belgium
• Germany
• Poland
• Belarus
• Russia
• Kazakhstan
• China

The route connected London Gateway, located on the Thames estuary, with Yiwu in China’s Zhejiang Province. Yiwu is one of the world’s largest wholesale markets for small consumer goods and has emerged as an important railway logistics hub connecting China with Europe.

Why Were Technical Changes Required During the Journey?

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• Railway systems across Eurasia do not use a uniform track gauge.
• Most European countries and China use the standard gauge of 1,435 millimetres, while Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and several former Soviet republics use a broader gauge of approximately 1,520 millimetres.
• Therefore, containers had to be transferred from one set of railway wagons to another at gauge-changing points.
• The first major transfer took place at the Poland–Belarus border. Another transfer was required when the train moved from Kazakhstan into China.
• These technical operations increase transit time and costs but allow rail cargo to move across regions with different railway standards.

What Is the Modern Silk Road?

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• The Modern Silk Road refers to a network of land, maritime, digital and economic corridors designed to improve connectivity between China, Asia, Europe, Africa and other regions.
• It is closely associated with the Belt and Road Initiative, which was announced by Chinese President Xi Jinping in 2013.

The BRI originally consisted of two major components:

1. The Silk Road Economic Belt, covering land-based routes across Eurasia.
2. The 21st Century Maritime Silk Road, covering sea routes connecting China with Southeast Asia, South Asia, Africa, the Middle East and Europe.

Over time, the initiative expanded to include digital, health, space, polar and green dimensions.

What Is the Belt and Road Initiative?

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The Belt and Road Initiative is China’s global infrastructure, trade and connectivity programme.

Its declared objectives include:

• Improving transport connectivity
• Facilitating international trade
• Promoting infrastructure development
• Encouraging financial integration
• Strengthening policy coordination
• Expanding people-to-people relations
• Improving energy and digital connectivity

The initiative includes railways, ports, highways, industrial parks, power projects, pipelines, telecommunications networks and logistics facilities.

China describes the BRI as a platform for international cooperation and shared development. However, several countries and analysts view it as an important instrument of China’s economic, diplomatic and strategic influence.

Major Components of the Modern Belt and Road Initiative

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Silk Road Economic Belt

• It consists of overland trade and infrastructure corridors connecting China with Central Asia, Russia, West Asia and Europe.
• It includes railway lines, highways, pipelines, industrial corridors and border trade centres.

21st Century Maritime Silk Road

• It connects Chinese ports with Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Indian Ocean, East Africa, the Red Sea and Europe.
• Ports and maritime logistics facilities form an important part of this component.

Digital Silk Road

The Digital Silk Road involves investments in:

• Fibre-optic cables
• Telecommunications networks
• 5G infrastructure
• Satellite navigation
• Cloud computing
• Artificial intelligence
• Smart cities
• E-commerce platforms
• Digital payment systems

It can improve digital access and economic efficiency, but it has also generated concerns regarding cybersecurity, data protection, surveillance and technological dependence.

Green Silk Road

• China has increasingly emphasised renewable energy, low-carbon infrastructure, environmental cooperation and green finance under the BRI.
• The shift reflects global climate commitments and criticism of the environmental impact of coal plants, dams, highways and other large infrastructure projects.

Health Silk Road

• The Health Silk Road seeks to promote cooperation in public health, pharmaceuticals, medical equipment, disease surveillance and healthcare infrastructure.
• It gained prominence during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Major Economic Corridors Associated with the BRI

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New Eurasian Land Bridge

• It links eastern China with Central Asia and Europe through rail networks.
• China–Europe freight trains are a major part of this corridor.

China–Pakistan Economic Corridor

• The China–Pakistan Economic Corridor, or CPEC, connects China’s Xinjiang region with Pakistan’s Gwadar Port.
• It includes highways, power plants, industrial zones, pipelines and port infrastructure.
• However, parts of CPEC pass through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, raising concerns regarding India’s sovereignty and territorial integrity.

China–Central Asia–West Asia Corridor

• This corridor seeks to connect China with Central Asian republics, Iran, Türkiye and Europe.
• It has gained strategic relevance as countries look for alternatives to routes passing through Russia.

China–Mongolia–Russia Economic Corridor

• It seeks to improve rail, road and energy connectivity among the three countries.
• Its progress has been influenced by geopolitical developments and the Russia–Ukraine conflict.

China–Indochina Peninsula Corridor

• It connects southern China with mainland Southeast Asian countries through roads, railways and industrial networks.
• The China–Laos Railway is an important project under this broader connectivity system.

Bangladesh–China–India–Myanmar Economic Corridor

• The BCIM Economic Corridor was proposed to connect China’s Yunnan Province with Myanmar, Bangladesh and eastern India.
• However, India has not endorsed its inclusion within the BRI framework.

Important Projects Along the Modern Silk Road

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China–Europe Railway Express

• The China–Europe Railway Express is a network rather than a single railway line.
• It connects manufacturing and commercial centres in China with cities across Europe.
• The services transport electronics, machinery, vehicles, automotive components, textiles, medical supplies and consumer products.

Khorgos Gateway

• Khorgos is a major dry port located near the China–Kazakhstan border.
• It facilitates the transfer of containers between Chinese standard-gauge trains and Kazakhstan’s broad-gauge railway network.
• Its location makes it an important logistics hub linking China with Central Asia and Europe.

Gwadar Port

• Gwadar Port is situated in Pakistan’s Balochistan province near the Arabian Sea.
• China views it as an important maritime and logistics node under CPEC.
• However, the project faces security challenges, local opposition, financial concerns and questions about its commercial viability.

China–Laos Railway

• The China–Laos Railway connects Kunming in China with Vientiane, the capital of Laos.
• It has improved regional connectivity but has also raised concerns regarding Laos’s external debt and financial dependence.

China–Kyrgyzstan–Uzbekistan Railway

• This long-discussed railway is intended to create a shorter connection between China and Central Asia, with onward access towards West Asia and Europe.
• Its development is strategically important because it may provide an additional route that avoids Russian territory and strengthens Central Asia’s role in Eurasian trade.

New International Land–Sea Trade Corridor

• This corridor connects western China with Southeast Asian ports through rail and maritime transport.
• Its railway services handled a record 1.425 million TEUs in 2025, demonstrating the growing importance of integrated land–sea logistics routes.

What Is the Middle Corridor?

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The Middle Corridor, formally known as the Trans-Caspian International Transport Route, connects China and Central Asia with Europe through:

• Kazakhstan
• The Caspian Sea
• Azerbaijan
• Georgia
• Türkiye
• European markets

The corridor avoids Russian territory.

It has gained importance following the Russia–Ukraine conflict because sanctions, insurance risks and geopolitical uncertainties have affected freight movement through the traditional northern route across Russia and Belarus.

However, the Middle Corridor faces several limitations:

• Multiple border crossings
• Dependence on maritime transfers across the Caspian Sea
• Limited port capacity
• Different customs procedures
• Railway gauge changes
• Higher coordination costs
• Inadequate infrastructure in some regions

Despite these limitations, it is emerging as an important alternative route connecting Asia and Europe.

Advantages of Rail Freight Over Sea and Air Transport

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Rail freight provides an intermediate option between sea and air transport.

• Faster than sea transport: Rail journeys between China and Europe generally take considerably less time than maritime shipping.
• Cheaper than air freight: Rail cargo is normally less expensive than air cargo, particularly for high-value or time-sensitive goods.
• Suitable for medium-volume cargo: It is useful for products that require faster delivery than ships can provide but cannot bear the cost of air transport.
• Greater supply-chain diversification: Rail routes reduce excessive dependence on maritime chokepoints and congested ports.
• Supports inland regions: Landlocked areas in China, Central Asia and Europe can gain better access to international markets.

However, rail freight cannot replace sea transport for bulk commodities and very large cargo volumes because maritime transport generally remains more economical.

Economic Significance of the Modern Silk Road

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Expansion of International Trade

• Improved transport links can reduce the time and cost of moving goods across national borders.
• World Bank estimates suggest that fully implemented BRI transport infrastructure could significantly reduce travel times along participating transport corridors.

Infrastructure Development

• Many developing countries face large infrastructure financing gaps.
• BRI projects can help build ports, roads, railways, power plants and digital networks.

Industrial Development

• Transport corridors can encourage the establishment of industrial parks, warehouses, manufacturing zones and logistics centres.

Regional Integration

• The initiative can strengthen economic linkages among Asian, European, African and Middle Eastern countries.

Development of Landlocked Countries

• Countries in Central Asia can gain improved access to seaports and international markets.

Supply-Chain Resilience

• Alternative transport corridors can provide businesses with additional options during disruptions in maritime shipping, ports or geopolitical hotspots.

Strategic Significance for China

• The BRI is not merely an infrastructure programme.
• It also serves several strategic objectives for China.

Access to Markets

• Improved connectivity supports Chinese exports and gives Chinese companies access to overseas markets.

Energy Security

• Pipelines, ports and transport corridors can diversify China’s access to oil, gas and other strategic resources.

Development of Western China

• The initiative seeks to connect inland regions such as Xinjiang with Central Asia and European markets.

Use of Industrial Capacity

• Overseas infrastructure projects create opportunities for Chinese construction, railway, steel, cement, telecommunications and energy companies.

Internationalisation of Chinese Standards

• Chinese railway, telecommunications, digital payment and engineering standards can gain wider acceptance through overseas projects.

Expansion of Strategic Influence

• Long-term infrastructure, financing and digital partnerships can increase China’s economic and diplomatic influence in participating countries.

Recent Transformation of the BRI

• The Belt and Road Initiative has evolved considerably since its launch.
• During its initial phase, China focused heavily on large-scale projects such as ports, highways, dams, railways and power plants.

The newer phase is increasingly described as BRI 2.0 and includes:

• Smaller and financially manageable projects
• Greater emphasis on project quality
• Increased private-sector and equity investment
• Renewable-energy projects
• Digital and technological cooperation
• Trade facilitation and technical standards
• Local livelihood projects
• Greater attention to financial and environmental risks

The shift is partly a response to debt repayment difficulties, local opposition, economic slowdown, geopolitical resistance and concerns about the viability of mega-infrastructure projects.

Despite these adjustments, Chinese engagement under the BRI remains substantial. Research covering 2025 indicated a renewed increase in Chinese overseas construction and investment activity, particularly in energy, mining, technology and strategic infrastructure.

Major Challenges Facing the Belt and Road Initiative

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Debt Sustainability

• Many BRI projects are financed through loans. Countries with weak revenue bases may struggle to repay them.
• However, debt problems cannot always be attributed exclusively to China.
• Domestic fiscal mismanagement, global interest rates, commodity shocks, exchange-rate depreciation and borrowing from multiple creditors can also contribute to debt distress.

Lack of Transparency

Questions have been raised about:

• Confidential loan agreements
• Non-competitive bidding
• Project pricing
• Procurement procedures
• Sovereign guarantees
• Environmental assessments

Greater transparency is necessary to assess the costs and benefits of projects.

Commercial Viability

• Some infrastructure projects may not generate enough revenue to repay construction and financing costs.
• Politically attractive mega-projects can become underutilised assets if demand estimates are unrealistic.

Sovereignty Concerns

• Infrastructure projects located in disputed territories can create serious sovereignty issues.
• India’s objection to CPEC is the most important example from the Indian perspective.

Security Risks

• Railways, ports, pipelines and workers may face threats from terrorism, insurgency, political instability and local opposition.
• Chinese projects in Pakistan and parts of Africa have faced security-related difficulties.

Environmental Impact

Large dams, roads, mining projects, pipelines and ports can cause:

• Deforestation
• Habitat destruction
• Displacement of communities
• Water pollution
• Increased carbon emissions
• Damage to biodiversity

Digital Security Concerns

Digital Silk Road projects raise questions regarding:

• Cybersecurity
• Data localisation
• Surveillance
• Dependence on foreign technology
• Control over critical digital infrastructure

Geopolitical Rivalry

The BRI has become part of wider strategic competition involving China, the United States, the European Union, Japan and India.

Alternative initiatives include:

• India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor
• European Union’s Global Gateway
• G7 Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment
• International North–South Transport Corridor
• Asia–Africa Growth Corridor

Local Opposition

• Communities may oppose projects because of inadequate compensation, environmental damage, limited local employment or fears that benefits will primarily go to foreign companies.

Unequal Trade Relations

• Improved infrastructure does not automatically produce balanced trade.
• Participating countries may continue importing high-value manufactured goods while exporting raw materials.

Impact of the Russia–Ukraine Conflict

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The Russia–Ukraine conflict has significantly affected Eurasian railway connectivity.

Before the conflict, a large share of China–Europe rail freight travelled through Kazakhstan, Russia, Belarus and Poland.

Following the conflict:

• Sanctions increased legal and financial risks.
• Some European companies sought to avoid Russian territory.
• Insurance and compliance requirements became more complex.
• Interest in the Middle Corridor increased.
• Central Asian countries gained greater strategic importance.
• China explored more diversified rail and multimodal routes.

Nevertheless, the northern route has not completely disappeared and continues to carry freight. The result is a more diversified but geopolitically fragmented Eurasian transport network.

Italy’s Withdrawal from the BRI

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Italy became the first G7 country to formally join the Belt and Road Initiative in 2019.

In December 2023, Italy decided not to renew its BRI memorandum, effectively withdrawing from the initiative.

Italy’s decision reflected concerns about limited economic benefits, trade imbalances, strategic dependence and relations with the European Union and the United States.

The withdrawal demonstrated that participation in the BRI is not irreversible and that countries may reassess projects according to domestic economic and strategic priorities.

India’s Position on the Belt and Road Initiative

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• India has not joined the Belt and Road Initiative.

Its principal objections include:

Violation of Sovereignty

• CPEC passes through parts of the Union Territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh that are under Pakistan’s illegal occupation.
• India maintains that connectivity initiatives must respect sovereignty and territorial integrity.

Lack of Transparency

• India has called for infrastructure projects to follow internationally accepted principles of transparency, financial responsibility and open procurement.

Debt Sustainability

• India has expressed concern that infrastructure projects should not create unsustainable debt burdens for participating countries.

Environmental and Social Standards

• Projects should comply with environmental safeguards, local laws and community interests.

Strategic Concerns

• Chinese involvement in ports and other infrastructure across the Indian Ocean has generated concerns about India’s maritime security and China’s long-term strategic presence.
• India reiterated in February 2025 that it continues to monitor the implications of BRI and CPEC projects for its sovereignty, territorial integrity and security.

India’s Alternative Connectivity Initiatives

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• India supports connectivity but advocates a consultative, transparent and rules-based approach.

Important Indian initiatives include:

International North–South Transport Corridor

• The INSTC is a multimodal network connecting India with Iran, Central Asia, Russia and Europe through sea, rail and road links.

Chabahar Port

• India’s involvement in Iran’s Chabahar Port is intended to improve access to Afghanistan and Central Asia without depending on Pakistan.

India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor

• The proposed IMEC seeks to connect India with the Arabian Peninsula and Europe through shipping, railways, energy networks and digital links.

Act East Policy

• India is strengthening road, maritime and digital connectivity with Southeast Asian countries.

Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project

• It seeks to connect India’s eastern coast with Myanmar and India’s northeastern region through sea and inland waterways.

Trilateral Highway

• The India–Myanmar–Thailand Trilateral Highway seeks to improve road connectivity between India and Southeast Asia.

SAGAR and Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative

• These frameworks promote maritime security, regional cooperation and sustainable use of ocean resources.

What Should India Do?

India should adopt a multidimensional response rather than viewing every BRI project solely through the lens of strategic competition.

India should:

• Accelerate the completion of its own connectivity projects.
• Improve connectivity with neighbouring countries.
• Strengthen Chabahar Port and the INSTC.
• Operationalise IMEC through sustained diplomatic engagement.
• Invest in ports, shipping, railways and logistics infrastructure.
• Promote transparent and sustainable infrastructure financing.
• Expand digital and energy partnerships with developing countries.
• Coordinate with Japan, the European Union, ASEAN and Gulf countries.
• Improve project-delivery capacity in South Asia.
• Offer credible development alternatives suited to local requirements.
• Protect India’s sovereignty and security interests.
• Maintain engagement with Central Asian and Indian Ocean countries.

Conclusion

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• The 2017 freight-train journey from London to Yiwu symbolised the revival of transcontinental land connectivity between Europe and Asia. What began as a notable logistics experiment has developed into a vast network of China–Europe freight services and interconnected infrastructure corridors under the Belt and Road Initiative.
• The initiative offers opportunities for trade, infrastructure development, regional integration and supply-chain diversification. At the same time, it raises significant concerns regarding debt sustainability, transparency, environmental impact, sovereignty, digital security and strategic dependence.
• For India, the central challenge is to protect its sovereignty while building faster, financially sustainable and transparent alternatives. India’s response must therefore combine strategic caution with stronger regional connectivity, efficient project implementation and constructive partnerships across Eurasia and the Indo-Pacific.

Way Forward

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• The future of Eurasian connectivity should be based on transparency, financial viability, environmental sustainability and respect for national sovereignty.
• Participating countries must carefully evaluate the long-term economic and strategic implications of infrastructure projects rather than focusing only on immediate investment.
• International connectivity can become a genuine instrument of shared prosperity only when projects are consultative, inclusive, commercially sustainable and responsive to the needs of local communities.

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